INTRODUCTION 
2 
to indicate that the limits of the zemstvo work were not definitely in- 
dicated ; they could be expanded with the development of the work 
itself. At the time the law was enacted those activities which fell 
within the province of the work of the zemstvos were still in their 
infancy; some of them did not even exist. The autocratic govern- 
ment was not interested in the advancement of such activities and its 
ignorance of local conditions hindered all attempts in the right di- 
rection even where they were made. 
The institutions of the zemstvos were built on the foundation of 
free elections and responsibility to the population. The original 
franchise was very broad. Members of the zemstvo assemblies were 
elected for three years. The whole work of the institutions of local 
government, therefore, was carried on under the control of the 
voters. But at the same time the zemstvos were responsible to the 
local officers of the central government and must accept the super- 
vision of the Ministry of the Interior. 
The sound foundation on which the institutions of local govern- 
ment were built brought about results which surprised those in au- 
thority. The bureaucratic circles were in the habit of looking upon 
the population as a purely passive body that was capable of doing 
only what it was told to do, and they did not expect that it could 
perform successfully the new duties imposed upon the zemstvos, or 
find responsible leaders with initiative and vision. The ignorance in 
which the masses had been kept for centuries had accustomed the 
Government to think of them as something passive, devoid of imagi- 
nation, complacently accepting any command, and grateful for 
guidance from those higher up. It appeared however that the in- 
vigorating breezes of self-government brought with them new life 
for the country which had been paralyzed by a régime of repres- 
sions, just as spring revives nature after the long winter’s sleep. It 
is to be expected that in some instances the work did not proceed 
smoothly and there were many days of hard work and bitter disap- 
pointment. But still it was a period of creative work, “From slough 
to slough, but what a wonderful spring,” as one of the leaders of the 
Great Reforms put it. 
The progress of the zemstvo work was truly remarkable. There 
was no lack of men. The educated elements of the community were 
only too eager to help. A body of zemstvo workers gradually grew 
up which differed from the class of government employees. It may