50 THE ZEMSTVOS DURING THE WAR 
4,890 versts of former state highways, 11,448 versts of macadam- 
ized or paved roads, 90,378 versts of improved, and 83.166 versts 
of unimproved earth roads. To maintain these roads in proper con- 
dition, the zemstvos employed large staffs of engineers, craftsmen, 
and laborers. 
Postal and Telephone Service. 
Russia did not possess a very dense network of railways until a 
comparatively recent time. Consequently, the conveyance of mails 
by road was an extremely important business. In most parts of Rus- 
sia, it was in the hands of private firms acting as contractors for the 
Government. But a considerable number of district zemstvos oper- 
ated their own postal service. The postmasters of these zemstvo 
offices were required to carry the mails within their respective dis- 
tricts, besides furnishing horses for the conveyance of the local 
agents of the Government and the zemstvo employees. 
The organization of telephone communication by the zemstvos 
proceeded mostly during the few years immediately before the War. 
In 1914, the zemstvos had already been granted permits to open 219 
new telephone systems, and 163 of these were already in operation, 
covering a distance of 65,344 versts, with a total cable length of 
150,998 versts. 
Conclusions. 
With this we conclude our survey of the more outstanding activi- 
ties of the zemstvos previous to the War. This survey is, naturally, 
far from complete. We have confined ourselves in the main to those 
features of their work which were typical, and have ignored others 
which were characteristic only of isolated zemstvos (such as main- 
tenance of secondary schools, participation in the establishment of 
higher scientific institutions, organization of museums of natural 
history, and soil investigation). 
If we add to this the fact that a large number of provincial zem- 
stvos had printing plants and published periodicals, in which their 
work was discussed and which helped to diffuse useful knowledge 
through the rural districts, we can see clearly how powerful they 
were and what an immensely important part they played in the life 
of the Russian State. It is natural, therefore, that these bodies, con- 
trolling practically the entire medical service of the nation, carrying