THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 133

individuals,! but their application is obviously intended to
be general, and we may reasonably infer that a copy was
sent to each provincial Diwan, addressed to him by name;
the earlier document is based on enquiries made throughout
the Reserved and Assigned areas of the Empire, while the
latter applies specifically to the revenue officers of “the
Empire of Hindustan from end to end.”
The two orders are distinguished by a marked difference
in the terminology employed. The language of the earlier
is substantially that which was used in official documents in
the time of Akbar, and presents no serious difficulties in
interpretation, though a few phrases are obscure. The later
order is expressed in the terms of Islamic Law, and is
obviously related to the extant collection? of Fatwas, or
rulings given by ecclesiastical jurists on questions referred
to them by the Emperor. The farmian is based either on
these fatwas or on some earlier pronouncements of similar
purport; and it must be taken as part of Aurangzeb’s
attempt to conduct his administration in accordance with
the religious system of which he was so devoted an adherent.
The first order is characterised by precise and logical
arrangement, practically identical with that of Akbar’s
rules for collectors, and it shows us in operation the administrative
 dyarchy, the introduction of which was noticed
in the last Chapter. Revenue from the Reserved areas
was expended by the Emperor, not the Viceroy; and it was
assessed and collected by the Revenue Ministry, acting
through the provincial Diwans. Accordingly, we read
nothing about Viceroys or Governors: all references are to

! The first order is addressed to Rashik Dis Krori, but its terms show
that it was intended for a provincial Diwan, because it instructs him how to
control the Amin, the Amil or Krori, and the Treasurer, who constituted
the Diwan’s staff. The word “ Krori,”” must therefore be read as a
soubriquet rather than a designation; such soubriquets were commonly
employed when there were two or more officers bearing one name, and
presumably Rashik Dis had been a Krori before promotion to the post
of Diwan. I have not traced a reference to him in the chronicles, but they
do not give anything like a complete list of provincial Diwins at this
period. The recipient of the second order, Muhammad Hashim, was.
according to Professor Sarkar, provincial Diwan of Gujarat.
* Fatawa-i Alamgir, title *“ Ushr and Khardj.”” The text is Arabic,
and I know of no published translation; that which I have used was made
for me bv Mr. U. M. Daudpota.