TRADE UNIONS. 321
complete record is available, but the numbers in the aggregate are pro-
bably about equal to those of Bombay. At the end of 1929, 87 unions
claiming 183,000 members had been registered under the Trade
Unions Act; of these 38 with 90,000 members were registered in
Bombay Presidency. The All-India Trade Union Congress had
affiliated to it in December 1929, 51 unions claiming 190,436
members; but this included one large union whose figures were
questionable. Membership is everywhere loosely defined, and many
unions retain on their books members who have long ceased to pay subs-
criptions. At least one union has been formed which claimed no subs-
cription from its members.
Internal Difficulties,
From this necessarily brief survey of recent and contemporary
history we turn to questions of future policy and development. Here it is
wise to recognise at the outset the difficulties which confront those who
are endeavouring to build up the movement. To a large extent the
obstacles to development are internal rather than external—they come
from labour itself. In the first place, the migratory character of the bulk
of Indian labour presents a serious obstacle. Those who are frequently
leaving an industrial centre, even for short spells, and are frequently
changing their employer, are less inclined than more permanent workers
to maintain a constant interest in any organisation. Further, the fact
that so many workers look forward to a proximate or ultimate escape
from industry tends to diminish their enthusiasm for efforts to amelio-
rate their conditions and to enhance their readiness to tolerate disabi-
lities. The present conditions of industrial life in India are not con-
ducive to the unflagging endeavour: which proved so necessary in the
West for the maintenance of trade unions; those whose wages and
leisure are barely adequate for sustained work in the factory are not
likely to find energy or leisure for activity outside it. It is not difficult
to trace a correlation between the strength of the movement in parti-
cular centres and industries and the degree of permanence and regularity
which characterises the labour force. Another serious handicap is the
poverty of the average worker, to whom even a small subscription can
be an appreciable burden, particularly when he is already encumbered
by debt. Except in times of great stress, few unions can secure ade-
quate funds without external assistance. An additional obstacle arises
from the divisions whichrun across the lines on which trade unionism
must develop. Difference of language and race are, separating factors,
and to these is frequently added the active opposition of the jobbers,
or their equivalent, to anything resembling a horizontal organisation.

Fundamental Deficiencies.
But there are even more fundamental difficulties. Trade
unionism, to be fully effective, demands two things: a democratic
spirit and education. The democratic ideal has still to be developed
in the Indian worker, and the lack of education is the most serious ob-
stacle of all. The latter difficulty does not arise merely or even mainly