84 REPORT ON COOPERATION IN AMERICAN EXPORT TRADE.

and Germany, which continued as semi-government institutions exercising
 certain administrative functions and enjoying advisory
powers in commercial legislation.
Chambers of commerce.~—Joint action in various fields became
so obviously desirable, however, that organizations were perfected
to secure such concerted action. Thus chambers of commerce and
trade associations have developed.
British chambers of commerce, like those in this country, are mndependent,
 voluntary associations of business men and manufacturers
without official connection with the Government. They are supported
 by membership fees, receiving no subsidies from the Government.
 Their purposes are similar to those of our own chambers of
commerce, namely, the promotion and protection of general trade
interests rather than those of special trades.
Most of the British chambers of commerce were formed during the
latter half of the nineteenth century, though some were established
much earlier. The London chamber was not organized, however,
until 1881.
British chambers of commerce meet several times a year. Their
special trade sections meet from time to time to discuss their special
interests, and are represented on the executive committees of the
chambers to which they belong. The form of government of British
chambers of commerce is apparently in the main like that of our own
organizations of like character. In spite of their unofficial character,
they are frequently consulted by the Government authorities in
regard to the commercial interests or the industries of the localities
which they represent. They frequently organize courts of arbitration
for commercial disputes and conciliation boards for the settlement of
labor troubles.
There are about 125 chambers of commerce in the United Kingdom,
 but many are relatively weak and unimportan{. The London
Chamber of Commerce, with more than 5,000 members, is one of the
most representative. It is divided into a large number of trade sections,
 each of which has a separate organization and its own chairman,
 elected by the section, subject to the approval of the general
council of the chamber. The chamber is connected with a number
of mercantile associations, which preserve their separate organizations
 and independence, but cooperate with the chamber for general
or special purposes. The Liverpool Chamber of Commerce works
on lines similar to those of the London Chamber. Its African trade
section has been the leading voice in all matters relating to West
Africa since its organization in 1884.
Chambers of commerce representing British interests have been
established in several foreign countries. They are self-supporting