The  provinces  and  the  treaty  ports  259
internal  taxation,  driving  trade  from  natural  water  routes
to  a  channel  by  which  expensive  transport  over  hill  roads
must  be  substituted  ;  and  they  must  be  considered  with
reference  to  the  following  dates  :—
1884  (seven  years  after  opening  of  port),  French  occupation ­
  of  Tonkin  transformed  the  frontier  from  an  internal
to  an  external  boundary.
1889,  the  opening  of  Mengtsz  and  relaxation  of  fiscal
restrictions  in  Tonkin  restored  the  Red  River  to  its  natural
use  as  a  trade  route  to  Yunnan.
1897,  the  opening  of  Wuchow  as  a  treaty  port,  carrying
the  one-duty  privilege  into  Kwangsi  and  neutralising  the
likin  barriers  of  Kwangtung,  made  the  West  River  available ­
  through  its  entire  course  as  route  to  Yunnan  and
Western  Kwangsi.

Goods.

Annual  Average  in

1881-83.  1888-90.  X894-96.  1898-1900

Shirtings,  Yards
T.-Cloths  „
Fine  cottons  ,,
Cotton  yarn,  Piculs
Long  Ells,  Pieces
Total  value  of  all
cotton  and  woollen ­
  goods..  Tls.

36,120
,337,950
14,600
11,323
5,306

357,899

4,081,600
2,987,875
1,315,660
91,481
20,109

2,454,334

3,127,160
1,357,050
790,920
76,090
13,171

1,488,120
499,250
576,900
45,654
6,434

1,922,160

1,221,749

The  value  of  the  trade  of  Pakhoi  in  1904  was,  imports
Tls.1,892,235,  exports  Tls.1,122,423,  total  Tls.3,014,658.
The  exports  included  sugar  (Tls.296,000)  and  indigo
(Tls.257,000).

Cessions  in  Kwangtung
1  here  are  no  less  than  three  areas  in  Kwangtung  ceded
to  foreign  powers  under  different  conditions—Macao  to
Portugal,  Hongkong  to  Great  Britain,  and  Kwangchowwan

to  France.
Macao

(22 0  11'  N.,  113 0  33'  E.)  was  first  occupied