THE REOCCUPATION OF NORTHERN AFRICA 281 
quantities of cheap goods and utensils have been imported 
by Germany, sometimes even stamped with the names of 
English mercantile or manufacturing centers. 
On the other hand, France, with skillful generalship and 
persistent, enlightened effort, has outdistanced all competi- 
tors. Her share of the entire trade in 1906 was over 41 per 
cent, while England retained 32 per cent,! and Spain 4.8 
per cent. Through her superior position in Algeria, the 
Sahara, and Senegal, France possesses unrivaled advantages 
for trade with Morocco; and she is destined to secure more 
and more of it as time passes. Her citizens have already 
invested above 80,000,000 francs there, and these claims 
must be cared for and protected. 
The topography of the country has exerted a great in- 
fluence upon the history and government of Morocco. The 
state is crossed by a number of mountain chains which have 
effectively divided it into several distinct provinces, and pre- 
vented, thus far, all efforts to promote a real unity. Tribal 
independence, local jealousies, and personal rivalries have 
been encouraged and perpetuated. These natural divisions 
gave rise to the two capitals of Marrakesh and Fez, and the 
minor principalities of Sus, Tafilet, and the Riff. This 
separateness has been further accentuated by the lack of 
good roads and of modern means of transportation and 
communication. 
Over various parts of the empire, the control of the Sultan 
has been uncertain and often merely nominal. The more 
powerful rulers have succeeded in maintaining a real su- 
premacy over the strong tribal chieftains, frequently calling 
them to account with a ruthless hand. The weaker sultans 
have, however, sometimes gone for years without having 
been able to collect the customary tribute. In recent times, 
! In 1911, the proportion was: France 40 per cent, Great Britain 26.4 
per cent, and Spain 13.77 per cent.