258 THE ZEMSTVOS DURING THE WAR
been useless, as the enemy authorities admitted only new books hav-
ing no marks or stains. All these restrictions naturally proved a
great hindrance to relief work and the general disorganization of
the postal and transport services was a further impediment.
Considerable material assistance was given to the Russian pris-
oners of war by the organizations which were opened in Berne,
Copenhagen, Stockholm, The Hague, Paris, and London. All of
them were working in close contact with the Unions of Zemstvos and
of Towns and to some extent with the direct cooperation of the lat-
ter’s representatives. Nevertheless, we must admit that the relief
afforded was insignificant in comparison with the need. The total
number of Russian prisoners of war was never exactly known. The
official German and Austrian returns and those of the Russian Gen-
eral Staff differ to such an extent that it is impossible even at this
late date to reconcile them. In the opinion of well-informed persons,
there should have been at least 2,000,000 Russian prisoners in the
enemies’ hands. In Germany, as well as in Austria, this vast army of
prisoners suffered constant hunger, as the inhabitants of those
countries were themselves suffering from undernourishment. Dis-
eases raged in the camps of the Russian prisoners, and according
to official reports the mortality among the Russians was higher than
among the prisoners of other nationalities, exceeding 7 per cent.’
Measures against Poison Gas.
Poison gas was employed by the Germans on the Russian front
for the first time in May, 1915. This unfamiliar method of warfare
created consternation throughout Russia. Various organizations for
the study of the problems of chemical warfare came into existence
almost simultaneously and were sponsored by the Ministry of War,
the Red Cross, and the Unions of Zemstvos and of Towns. A re-
search laboratory was established at Moscow by the Union of Zem-
stvos and rapidly became the center of the anti-gas campaign.
The first steps were but helpless attempts to find some kind of
protection from the new weapon. Only gradually after much delay
and thanks to experiments conducted with animals, was it found
* Izvestia (Bulletin), Nos. 80-81, pp. 81-88; Nos. 85-36, pp. 99-105;
Nos. 52-53, pp. 180-186. Also Kratki Obszor Deyatelnosti (Outline), pp. 65-
66; and Trudi (Report) of the Committee for the Investigation of the Ef-
fects on Public Health of the War of 1914-1920, pp. 147-149, 157-177.
