182 THE AGRARIAN SYSTEM OF MOSLEM INDIA

whether the assessment was made with the headmen, or
with farmers not belonging to the village, is a question on
which I have found too little evidence for a confident decision,
 and it is possible that both these alternatives may be
covered by the term.
The first definite landmark in the agrarian history of this
portion of the country is the system of assessment introduced
by Malik Ambar in Ahmadnagar, at the time when he was
struggling to maintain the independence of part of that
kingdom against Jahangir. The evidence of traditions
which survived into the British period shows that the
changes then made were important, but I have failed to
determine their precise nature. I have found no contemporary
 account, while the descriptions! given by Grant
Duff and Robertson, which appear to be the foundations
of all that has been written on the subject, are somewhat
obscure, and differ in points which must be regarded as
essential. Grant Duff's concise account was based principally
 on certain Maratha MSS., which are not now
identifiable, but which can scarcely be contemporary
sources; according to it, Malik Ambar abolished Farming,
and substituted a collection of ‘“a moderate proportion of
the actual produce in kind, which, after the experience of
several seasons, was commuted for a payment in money
settled annually according to the cultivation.” A footnote
adds that his authorities showed the State’s claim as twofifths
 of the produce, while tradition put the money-commutation
 equal to about one-third. According to this
account, the sequence of assessment methods was, first
Farming, then Sharing in kind, then Measurement at cashrates,
 or something very like it.
Robertson's description was based on traditions collected
by him in the district of Poona; but he was obsessed by
James Grant’s erroneous account? of Todar Mal’s system,
which he supposed had been imitated by Malik Ambar, and
his efforts to make tradition square with what he believed
Todar Mal to have done involved him in a good deal of
1 For Grant Duff, see his History of the Mahrattas, i. 95 (edition of 1826).
Robertson’s Report is given in Selection of Papers from the Records of the
E. I. House, Vol. IV (1826), pp. 397 ff.
2 Grant's account is discussed in the next section.