ANTECEDENTS 
15 
but, when independent sovereign States developed in 
Islam, the tribute realised by a particular State came to 
be regarded, in practice if not in theory, as the revenue of 
the Ruler, and, in India at any rate, the word khardj can 
safely be translated as land-revenue, or more shortly 
“revenue.” 
In essence, this revenue consisted of a share of the produce 
of the land. The precise share was not laid down by 
Islamic law, but the underlying idea was that the profits 
of cultivation should be enjoyed by Moslems, and the 
only limit recognised by Aba Yisuf (59, 95), was the danger 
of checking production by over-assessment. The actual 
claim was decided by the Ruler in accordance with local 
conditions, but he was free to demand the full economic 
rent, or Producer’s Surplus, whatever it might be, provided 
always that such a demand did not cause the peasants to 
abscond, or reduce the area of their cultivation. The method 
of assessment also was left to be decided by the Ruler, and 
in the pages of Abi Yisuf? we meet with the two methods 
which have already been described under the names of 
Sharing and Measurement. 
Abii Yasuf contemplated the maintenance of direct 
relations between the Governor (Walz) and the peasants, 
and he tells us little about Intermediaries. He condemned 
(159, 160) Farming as oppressive, but his observations 
show that it was familiar to him in practice; and he con- 
sidered it to be legitimate in the case where the peasants 
put forward one of their number to engage for the total 
revenue due from them, an arrangement practically identical 
with that which I have called Group-assessment. I have 
not traced in his pages any direct authority for assessment 
through Chiefs, or for Grants or Assignments, but it is 
certain that these institutions were familiar to the Moslems 
who established the first kingdom of Delhi. Endowments 
for pious purposes are an integral part of Islamic law: 
L A discussion of the various terms denoting land-revenue will be found 
in Appendix A. 
t See (e.g.) p- 56; the land was measured, and a charge, partly cash and 
partly kind, was made on each unit of area; this is what I call Measurement. 
So (p. 74. 76), he recommends a share of the produce. to be determined 
or estimated, and valued at current prices; this is Sharing