INTRODUCTION 
7 
vest often led to numerous deaths by starvation. The situation, how- 
ever, was greatly improved after the administration of relief was 
taken over by the zemstvos. As soon as there were definite indications 
that a famine had assumed such dimensions that local resources 
could not check it, local zemstvos took the matter in hand, gave it 
wide publicity, asked the support of the Government and of the 
Treasury. They were invariably supported by the “Organization of 
the Zemstvos.” Public appeals were made. Russians are very respon- 
sive to appeals for the suffering. Donations would begin to arrive 
at once. With the sums so assembled the Organization immediately 
would set up relief machinery and would then approach the Gov- 
ernment arguing that it could not without endangering its prestige 
remain indifferent. Usually by the middle of the winter, sometimes 
as late as February or March, the Government would allow itself to 
be convinced, and would then make the necessary appropriations. 
The psychological effect was always the same—the victory of 
truth over hypocrisy. Every famine undermined the prestige of the 
central government and strengthened the position of the zemstvos 
and of the democratic elements. The moral effect of relief work in 
the famine-stricken areas was more far reaching in the struggle with 
the autocracy than any political victory. One must know what fam- 
ine really means, what are the psychological conditions of the people 
affected by it. In time of famine, real power is in the hands of those 
who can produce bread. 
At the outbreak of the Great War the zemstvos had gained in 
strength and experience. Driven by a common feeling of patriotism 
they sent their representatives to a conference in Moscow and or- 
ganized the All-Russian Union of Zemstvos for the Relief of War 
Sufferers. The Union was joined by forty-two provincial zemstvos, 
and by the Cossack territories of the Don, Kuban, and Terek. Si- 
beria, which was still waiting for the introduction of zemstvo insti- 
tutions, nevertheless kept in touch with the Union through her 
municipal organizations. In this way the whole of Russia, irrespec- 
tive of the fact whether certain portions of it did or did not enjoy 
the benefit of local government, joined hands in helping the army. 
The direct participation of the masses in the work for the army 
stimulated patriotic feelings and brought home the realization of the 
national importance of the War. 
In order to carry out the new work, special committees of the