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CHAPTER IX.—RAILWAYS. 
In this and the following chapter we deal with questions affecting 
labour on railways. During the three quarters of a century of their 
existence, service conditions have been created which now constitute 
tumerous and varied problems requiring special attention. In this 
chapter are indicated the extent of the railway systems and the nature 
of the administrations responsible for their working. We describe the 
methods of recruitment of workers and recommend more extensive 
use of employment officers and selection committees with a view to the 
elimination of complaints regarding appointments and promotions. We 
deal with the lack of uniformity in holiday and leave rules and goon to 
discuss in some detail questions of wages, including methods of pay- 
ment, standardisation, provident funds and deductions from earnings. 
In the following chapter we refer to hours of employment and 
to the desirability of giving fuller effect to the provisions of the ratified 
conventions relating to hours of work and rest periods. Suggestions 
are made for dealing with appeals against disciplinary actions with 
a View to removing grievances about insecurity of service, and then pro- 
posals for improved methods of regulating the relations between admin- 
istrations and workers are discussed at some length. We make recom- 
mendations for setting up joint standing machinery, including Loeal and 
Divisional Committees, Railway Councils, a Central Board and finally 
a Tribunal to which reference may ultimately be made in the event 
of preceding negotiations not resulting in a settlement. The chapter 
ends with a reference to health and welfare activities and to other 
matters which are dealt with in greater detail elsewhere in our 
Revort. 
Railway Svstems 
Railways in India cover a wide expanse, the total route mileage 
of 41,000 miles being in excess of that in any other country save the 
United States of America. With a total staff of over 800,000, the rail- 
way administrations are the largest employers of organised labour in 
India, and their working policy as regards wages and other terms of 
employment reacts to some extent on industrial labour conditions through- 
out the country. The earliest railways in India were short lines con- 
structed in the vicinity of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras between the 
years 1853 and 1856 by companies incorporated in England. It was 
not long, however, before the Government of India definitely adopted 
the policy of direct construction and ownership, and although a system 
of construction and management by the agency of companies continued, 
there has been a gradual change-over, until now 72 per cent of the total 
route mileage is owned and 45 per cent is directly managed by the 
State. Forstatistical purposes, Indian Railway systems are divided into 
three classes, namely, Class I, where the gross earnings of the system 
reach Rs. 50 lakhs in a year; Class II, where they are less than that 
amount and more than Rs. 10 lakhs, and Class III, where thev are not