THE SOCIALISTS OF THE CHAIR. 
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and the re-establishment of the ancient régime ; secondly, 
Socialism, which looks for a radical change of the social order ; 
and lastly, the orthodox economy, which believes that every 
thing will be set to rights by means of liberty and the action of 
natural laws. According to the Katheder-Socialisten, none of 
these three systems will resolve the difficulties which trouble 
the present epoch. A return to the past is impossible, a general 
and sudden modification of society is equally impossible, and 
to invoke liberty is, on this point, to cheat one’s self with empty 
words j for it is a question of right, of the statute-book, and of 
social organization. Distribution is effected not only by virtue 
of contracts, which ought, of course, to be free, but mainly by 
virtue of the laws of the State and the moral sentiments, of 
which it is necessary to estimate the influence and judge the 
equity. 
' If fias been a mistake to investigate economical problems 
from an isolated standpoint ; they are closely connected with 
psychology, religion, morals, law, customs, and history. It is, 
therefore, necessary to take all these elements into account, and 
not to be contented with the uniform and superficial formula of 
laissez faire. The class antagonism, which has been from all 
time at the bottom of political revolutions, reappears to-day 
with more serious features than ever. It seems to imperil the 
future of civilization. There is no use in denying the evil ; it 
is far better to study it under all its forms, and to endeavour to 
apply a remedy to it by means of successive and rational 
reforms. It is to morals, to the sentiment of justice, and to 
Christian charity that we must look for inspiration. Political 
Economy ought to be an ethical science. 
The Socialists of the Chair differ altogether from the old 
school in their view of the nature and limits of the right of 
property. The orthodox Economists speak of “ property ” as 
if it were an absolute right, perfectly defined and always iden 
tical. The new Economists assert, on the contrary, that this 
right has assumed very different forms in relation to the 
modes of production of each epoch ; that in like manner it is 
called upon to undergo new changes ; that it can never be 
considered as absolute, since it exists only in the general